Phosphorescence is the result of a three-stage process. In the first stage, energy is supplied by an external source, such as an incandescent lamp or a laser, and absorbed by the phosphorescent compound, creating excited electronic triplet states (as opposed to fluorescence, which only has a singlet excited state). In the second stage, the excited states exist for a finite time during which the phosphorescent compound undergoes conformational changes and is also subject to a multitude of possible interactions with its molecular environment. During this time, the energy of the excited states is partially dissipated, yielding relaxed states from which phosphorescence emission originates. The third stage is the phosphorescence emission stage in which energy is emitted, returning the phosphorescence compound to its ground states. The emitted energy is lower than its excitation energy (light or laser) and thus of a longer wavelength. This shift or difference in energy or wavelength allows the emission energy to be detected and isolated from the excitation energy.
Quenching of phosphorescence is a phenomenon in which various reactants will bond with the triplet states and decrease the effective amount of phosphorescent compound available for use, thus interrupting the phosphorescent signal. Oxygen and water are strong quenchers of triplet states and may cause decay of the phosphorescence signal, thereby limiting its use in applications such as, for example, most practical biological assay applications. In order to obtain strong phosphorescence, oxygen often must be removed during the phosphorescence measurement.
Several phosphorescence molecules have nonetheless been documented for application in biological assays, including metallo-porphyrins. The phosphorescence molecules for biological assays are usually water soluble and have functional groups for easy covalent conjugation with biological molecules such as proteins. During use of these compounds, oxygen can be removed by various means, including using Na2SO4 in an aqueous solution. Unfortunately, these means are often cumbersome to use and generate problems in obtaining consistent results.
One way to avoid oxygen quenching of the phosphorescence is to encapsulate phosphorescent molecules inside a solid matrix to shield them from quenchers such as oxygen and water molecules. Selection of the encapsulation matrix is important. The matrix should have relatively low oxygen permeability and have relatively high solubility of the phosphorescent molecules so that high loading of the phosphorescent molecules can be achieved and strong phosphorescence can be obtained. For many applications, mono-dispersed phosphorescent particles of different sizes are desired. In those cases, the matrices should be capable of forming mono-dispersed particles. For other applications, the phosphorescent particles may also be desired to have various surface functional groups to allow further surface modifications.
Different types of matrices have been used for encapsulation of phosphorescent molecules to form phosphorescent particles. These matrices include inorganic materials and polymers. Of the polymers used for encapsulation of phosphorescent molecules to form particles, polystyrene (PS) and polyacrylonitrile (PAN) and their derivatives have been commercially used. These polymeric systems, however, do not allow for maximal phosphorescence intensity at ambient conditions. The polystyrene matrix is not ideal for encapsulation of phosphorescent molecules because of the poor solubility of many phosphorescent molecules (sometimes referred to as “phosphorescent dye” or “dye”) in polystyrene, which results in low dye loading and relatively low phosphorescence. The oxygen solubility of polystyrene is also believed to be relatively high. PAN and its derivatives have been found to have low oxygen permeability but they have limited solubility for many phosphorescent molecules as well, which also limits their application for encapsulation of those phosphorescent molecules. There is a need for new matrix systems for the encapsulation of phosphorescent molecules to provide even higher phosphorescence intensity than that provided by PAN and its derivatives.